To investigate through a systematic review what topical treatments are currently advocated to manage acute skin reactions, including creams, ointments, and dressings, and what evidence there is to support the use of these treatments

Databases used were  MEDLINE and Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials. Keywords searched radiation therapy, epidermis, acute skin reactions, and therapy. Studies were included if they

• Were written in the English language
• Were controlled trials
• Provided information about the post-radiation acute skin reactions
• Had patients who were eligible for treatment.

No exclusion criteria were identified in the article.

Total references retrieved, evaluation method, and comments on the literature used were not reported.
 

• The final number of studies included in the review was 17, 15 studies in which an agent was used and 2 studies with washing only.
• The total sample size across studies was 1,968 participants, with a range of 10–194 participants in one arm and 39–366 participants in an entire study.
• Radiation sites included breast, head and neck, pelvic, chest, and abdomen.

Patients were undergoing active treatment.

• Washing: Significant decrease in itching, erythema, and desquamation was found in the group that washed with soap and water. A higher incidence of moist desquamation was found in the no washing group (33%) as compared to the washing with soap and water group (14%). 
• Aloe vera: One study showed a benefit at higher cumulative doses. Another showed no difference in maximum severity or time to onset of grade 2 radiodermatitis. Still another showed a detriment in that dry desquamation was higher in the aloe vera arm (70%) as compared to topical aqueous cream (41%). 
• Biafine (trolamine): Two studies showed no significant decrease in skin reaction when comparing no treatment, Aquaphor, Lipiderm, and Biafine. A third study showed a decrease in grade 2 or greater skin reaction, pain, and treatment interruptions. 
• Hyaluronic acid: Two studies showed a significant benefit (i.e., decreased severity and delayed onset of radiodermatitis) among patients receiving hyaluronic acid as compared to a placebo or unidentified control. 
• Corticosteroids: Of two randomized, double-blinded studies using corticosteroid cream as a prophylaxis, the study by Bostrom et al. found a 25% compared to 60% incidence of grade IV radiation dermatitis (corticosteroid vs. emollient). The second study did not find significant results in favor of corticosteroid. Another study showed no significant difference between a corticosteroid cream and a placebo. Still another study showed a significant difference between a corticosteroid cream and clobetasone, but most of the patients in both arms experienced moderate-to-maximum skin reactions. 
• Sulcrafate: A randomized study in head and neck cancer found no difference in erythema, but found a higher incidence of moist desquamation in the topical sulcrafate prophylaxis group. A large (N = 357) randomized study in head and neck (n = 107), breast (n = 229), and anorectal (n = 30) cancer by found no significant difference among the topical sulcrafate, topical aqueous cream, and no cream groups. Another study (N = 44) found a significant reduction in grade 2 radiodermatitis and more rapid healing in the topical sulcrafate group among patients with breast cancer. A different study (N = 39) compared topical sorbolene and sorbolene plus sulcrafate to manage grade 3 or greater skin toxicity and found no differences between the two groups. Another study showed no benefit of using oral sulcrafate as a prophylactic agent for late reaction in prostate cancer. A final study showed no benefit of using oral sulcrafate as a prophylactic agent in preventing skin reactions in head and neck cancer. 
• Barrier film: A study compared No-Sting barrier film to topical sorbolene as prophylaxis for moist desquamation among patients with breast cancer, showed a significant benefit. Another study  (N = 50 ) examined the use of Dermofilm in reducing pain and irritation. “Favorable” results were reported, but a larger study was recommended.
• Anti-microbials: No study results were found. The authors cautioned against using antimicrobials as a prophylactic agent related to our knowledge of drug resistance. 
• Dressings: One study examined healing after radiation treatment among 18 patients and found the mean healing time was 13 days. There was no comparison arm. Another study compared the use of sliver leaf nylon dressings applied to the perineum of 15 patients with anal or gynecologic cancers to historic controls. Patients who received the silver leaf nylon dressings had significantly reduced incidence of grade 3 and 4 reactions. A different study (N = 60) showed a higher incidence of radiodermatitis in the sulcrafate arm among patients with head and neck cancer.  Another study (N = 44) showed a significant benefit to breast cancer patients. One very small study (N = 15) showed a benefit of using sliver leaf nylon dressings to reduce grade 3 and 4 radiodermatitis of the perineum among anal and gynecologic cancers.

Washing with soap and water consistently demonstrated a benefit. The evidence for the use of aloe vera is mixed with one study showing harm. Biafine did not demonstrate a benefit nor a harm. Hyaluronic acid showed a benefit. Corticosteroid showed mixed results, with one study showing favorable results, two showing no increased benefit, and one study showing mixed results. Most of the evidence on topical sulcrafate shows no increased benefit in preventing and managing radiodermatitis. Dermofilm, a barrier film, showed a significant benefit in reducing moist desquamation among patients with breast cancer in one small study.

Additional studies with a larger sample and a blinded randomized controlled design are needed.

The aim of the study was to evaluate the efficacy of Vitamin E for the prevention of chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy.

Patients who were to receive taxane or platinum-based chemotherapy were randomized to receive placebo or vitamin E 300 mg by mouth twice daily. Treatment was begun within four days of the first chemotherapy treatment and continued throughout treatment and for one month beyond completion of chemotherapy. Patient assessments were conducted at baseline, prior to each chemotherapy treatment, and at one and six months after chemotherapy.

• The total sample consisted of 189 participants, 82% female and 18% male.
• Sixty-one percent of the total sample were older than age 50 years.
• Participants had multiple tumor types. Breast cancer was most common (61%).
• Ninety-four percent were Caucasian. 
• Fifty-eight percent were receiving taxane and the rest were receiving a platinum-based compound.
• Patients were excluded if anticoagulatns, opiods, anticonvulsants, or other treatments were used for neuropathic pain.
   

The study was conducted at multiple outpatient locations that were part of the North Central Cancer Treatment Group.

Phase of care

• Active antitumor treatment

The study had a double blind,  randomized, placebo-controlled trial design.

• NCI-CTCAE, version 3.0
• Symptom experience diary
• Neuropathic-specific questions
   

 No significant differences were noted between groups regarding study outcomes.

The findings do not demonstrate an effect of Vitamin E oral supplements on peripheral neuropathy from chemotherapy.

• Measurement and methods were not well described.
• Measurement validity and reliability was questionable.
• Use and frequency of the patient diary are not well described.
• There were no objective measures of neuropathy. 
• No recognized self-report questionnaire was used.

 Findings do not support the use of Vitamin E to prevent chemotherapy-induced peripheral neuropathy. Nurses can guide patients regarding the evidence in this area.

To examine the efficacy and safety of fentanyl buccal tablets (FBT) for treating breakthrough pain in patients with cancer

A dose titration of FBT was administered a maximum of four times. If ineffective, FBT was titrated to the next dose. In this double-blind study, nine tablets were prescribed, six being BTP and three a placebo. One tablet was taken per episode of breakthrough pain.

• N = 136  
• AGE = 20 years or older
• KEY DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS: Cancer-related pain
• OTHER KEY SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS: Japanese study

• SITE: Multi-site    
• SETTING TYPE: Inpatient    
• LOCATION: Hospitals in Japan

• PHASE OF CARE: Late effects and survivorship
• APPLICATIONS: Elder care and palliative care 

Double-blinded, placebo-controlled study

• Self-recorded pain diary using an 11-point Numeric Rating Scale (NRS)
• Questionnaire of subjects' impression of FBT

A significant difference was observed between the treatment groups and the primary endpoint. The mean was 2.4 for FBT treatment and 2 for the placebo. Regarding the effectiveness of FBT in the questioner survey, 22 and 56 subjects responded that analgesic onset of FBT occurred within 15 or within 15–30 minutes postadministraion.

In this study, FBT was well-tolerated in patients with cancer and was shown to relieve breakthrough pain in patients receiving around-the-clock opioids.

• Among the subjects who started effective dose titration, no effective dose was identified for 28 if the subjects, and 10 subjects did not receive a sufficient effect for breakthrough pain.
• Patients who did not complete the diary were still included.

FBT may be useful in cancer-related breakthrough pain with around-the-clock dosing of opioids.

To determine the extent to which pegfilgrastim reduces the risk of febrile neutropenia (FN) in Japanese women with early-stage breast cancer receiving docetaxel and cyclophosphamide (DC) chemotherapy

Pegfilgrastim at 3.6 mg or a placebo was administered subcutaneously on day 2 (at least 24 hours after DC chemotherapy) of a 21-day cycle. The study compared the incidence of FN between the pegfilgrastim and placebo cohorts. The incidence of FN during the first cycle of chemotherapy, incidence of hospitalization related to FN, incidence of grade 4 neutropenia, and percentage of patients who received antibiotics as a result of FN also were tracked.

• N = 346
• MEDIAN AGE = 50–51 years (range = 26–69 years)
• FEMALES: 100%
• KEY DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS: Stages I–III primary invasive breast cancer
• OTHER KEY SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS: Not applicable

• SITE: Multi-site  
• SETTING TYPE: Not specified  
• LOCATION: Japan

• PHASE OF CARE: Active antitumor treatment

Randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial using pegfilgrastim versus a placebo

FN was defined as an absolute neutrophil count < 500 and an axillary temperature at or above 37.5°C on the same day or the following day. Complete blood counts were checked on days 1, 2, 8, 11, and 15 during cycle 1 and on days 1, 2, 8, and 11 of subsequent cycles. Axillary body temperature was measured daily.

Patients treated with pegfilgrastim experienced a significantly lower incidence of FN (1.2%) compared to those who received a placebo (68.8%; p < 0.001). The measurement of secondary endpoints also revealed significant differences between the two groups. None of the patients in the pegfilgrastim group required hospitalization for FN whereas 6.9% of the placebo group did (p < 0.001). Patients who received pegfilgrastim were significantly less likely to require antibiotics to treat FN (0.6%) than those in the control group (56.6%; p < 0.001). During the first chemotherapy cycle, only one patient (0.6%) in the pegfilgrastim cohort developed FN compared to greater than half (57.8%) of the placebo group (p < 0.001). Only 4% of the pegfilgrastim group developed grade 4 neutropenia during chemotherapy whereas all of the placebo group developed this grade (p < 0.001).

Previous studies demonstrated the value of pegfilgrastim in significantly reducing FN in European and North American patients with breast cancer receiving chemotherapy with docetaxel. This study confirmed the efficacy of pegfilgrastim (using a dose of 3.6 mg) for use in Japanese female patients with breast cancer receiving DC chemotherapy. These results suggest that additional studies should be designed to determine if the lower pegfilgrastim dose of 3.6 mg is not inferior to the standard 6 mg dose.

• Findings not generalizable
• Other limitations/explanation: This study used pegfilgrastim at 3.6 mg, not the 6 mg that is the standard dose in the United States and Europe. The authors chose 3.6 mg for their study population because this dose has been demonstrated to be effective in reducing the incidence of FN following docetaxel, doxorubicin, and cyclophosphamide chemotherapy in Japanese patients.

The focus of this study was to demonstrate pegfilgrastim's efficacy in female Japanese patients with breast cancer, and it used a smaller pegfilgrastim dose than is commonly prescribed in the United States or Europe. Additional study is warranted to determine the appropriate dosage of pegfilgrastim for this particular population.

To investigate if the use of a second-generation 5-HT3 receptor antagonist (palonosetron) and a NK1 receptor agonist (aprepitant) could allow a decreased dose of dexamethasone based on nausea and vomiting in patients with breast cancer receiving highly emetogenic chemotherapy

Randomization was to Group A: palonosetron IV plus dexamethasone IV with oral aprepitant on day 1 followed by 8 mg dexamethasone IV and 80 mg aprepitant PO on days 2 and 3. Group B received a placebo instead of dexamethasone on days 2 and 3. Patients were treated in the hospital.

• N = 80   
• MEAN AGE = Group A: 53.5 years, Group B: 52.6 years
• AGE RANGE = 35–76 years
• FEMALES: 100%
• CURRENT TREATMENT: Chemotherapy
• KEY DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS: Chemotherapy naïve patients with breast cancer
• OTHER KEY SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS: Six patients who were included had metastatic disease. Patients were chemotherapy naïve with confirmed breast cancer and older than 19 years. Patients received chemotherapy that included an anthracycline-cyclophosphamide combination.

• SITE: Single site   
• SETTING TYPE: Inpatient    
• LOCATION: Japan

• PHASE OF CARE: Active antitumor treatment
• APPLICATIONS: Elder care, palliative care 

Phase-II, single-center, single-blind, placebo-controlled, parallel, randomized trial. Randomization was done on a one to one ratio using a minimization method.

• Self-report diary of nausea and vomiting
• Chart extractions measuring emetic episodes and use of rescue medications
• Adverse events were classified according to the Common Terminology Criteria of Adverse Events (CTCAE), version 4.0.
• Patients were classified as having complete control if they used no rescue medications and had no emetic episodes and only mild nausea.
• Complete response (CR) was defined as no emetic episodes and no rescue medication.  
• Nausea was measured as none, mild, moderate, or severe, based on subjective patient reports.

This study showed that complete control and CR revealed equivalent findings in acute and delayed chemotherapy-induced nausea and vomiting (CINV) with 1 day or 3 days of dexamethasone. No statistical differences were noted between both groups. Subgroup analysis looked at patients younger than 50 years. This also did not show any differences.

Using one dose of dexamethasone is feasible in treating CINV.

• Small sample (< 100)
• Measurement validity/reliability questionable
• Findings not generalizable
• Uncertainty as to how patients were hospitalized for the duration of the study, but this certainly added to purer date 
• The researchers relied on self-reports of nausea and vomiting and medical records of emesis, which can lead to underestimation if the nausea and/or vomiting was not documented.

Reducing the use of dexamethasone may be possible in treating CINV prospectively. This may be critical in uncontrolled diabetics.

This was a twelve-week outpatient rehabilitation program combining physical exercise and psycho-education and delivered in a group setting (12–16 participants per group). Physical training was led by two physiotherapists for two hours twice a week. Sessions aims included improving movement skills, improving strength and endurance, coping with fatigue, enhancing feelings of control, and reducing stress. Each session consisted of individual strength and endurance training (one hour) or a group sports activity (one hour), paired with 30 minutes of aqua aerobics. Each session of the group sports activity had a central theme (i.e., capability and cooperation, coordination, throwing and catching, social contact, winning and losing, relaxation). Psychoeducation sessions were led by oncology health professionals and aimed at providing support in coping with cancer and enhancing self-confidence and autonomy. Participants were provided with information on cancer-related subjects and encouraged to share their experiences as cancer survivors. Patient outcomes were assessed at baseline, week 6, and week 12.

• N = 658
• MEAN AGE =50.6 years
• AGE RANGE = 18–75 years
• FEMALES: 77.8%
• KEY DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS: Participants with mixed solid tumors and hematologic malignancies. Approximately 50% of the sample had the diagnosis of breast cancer.
• OTHER KEY SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS: The majority was married or lived together (77.7%), most had children (76.9%), about half were employed at the time of diagnosis (48.3%). At the start of rehabilitation, only one-fifth (15.8%) was actually at work. The sample was a mean of 1.3 years from the conclusion of treatment, with a range of 0–14 years following treatment.
• EXCLUSION CRITERIA: Physically at risk owing to cancer or serious comorbidity, serious cognitive disturbances, restricting side effects of medication, or if needing more complex rehabilitation

• Longitudinal single-arm cohort design
  • No comparison group

• EORTC QLQ-C30

After six weeks, participants in the intervention group experienced a significant decline in fatigue (p < 0.001) in comparison to baseline measurements. After 12 weeks, participants experienced an even greater decline in fatigue (p < 0.0001) in comparison to baseline measurements.

• Unable to determine the benefits of exercise and psychoeducation components of intervention separately
• Lack of a neutral comparison group; therefore, unable to determine whether improvements in quality of life were a direct result of the rehabilitative program
• Long-term effects were not assessed in the study

Future research should incorporate objective physical strength and endurance tests and validated measurement instruments for more specific psychosocial parameters.

This 12-week physical fitness and psychoeducational rehabilitation program was conducted to enhance quality of life and recovery among cancer survivors of all types of cancer. Its physical fitness component was aimed at improving movement skills, strength, and endurance; helping participants cope with physical complaints (e.g., fatigue); and enhancing feelings of control and stress reduction. Its psychoeducational component was aimed at providing support in coping with cancer and enhancing self-confidence and autonomy.

 The intervention had three components.  

1. A physical fitness program involving two hours of training twice weekly with guidance from two expert physiotherapists. Each session consisted of

• One hour of individual training for endurance and strength or one hour of group sports and games
• 30 minutes of aqua-aerobics in an indoor pool.

2. A psychoeducational program consisting of seven two-hour sessions aimed at providing support in coping with cancer and enhancing self-confidence and autonomy.

3. Information on cancer-related subjects.

Subjective measures were completed prior to the intervention, 6 weeks into the intervention, and at 12 weeks at the intervention's end. 

• The number of enrolled participants was 665. Of the enrolled participants, 658 initiated the program, 634 completed 6 weeks of the program, and 579 completed the program's full 12 weeks. 
• The average age of the participants was 50.6 ± 9.5 years, with a range of 18–75 years.
• 54% of the participants had breast cancer. Other cancers included were lymphoma, digestive tract, gynecologic, and lung cancer.
• 77.8% of the participants were female and 21% were male. Gender was unknown for 1.2% of the participants. 
• The average time since diagnosis was 2.1 years, with a range of 0–25 years.
• The average time since end of treatment was 1.3 years, with a range 0–14 years.

This was a single-site study. 

This was a prospective trial. 

The European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer Quality of Life Questionnaire-30 (EORTC QLQ-C30) was used to measured global and functional quality of life using 6 subscales (global, physical, role, cognitive, emotional, social functioning) and one symptom scale on fatigue. Scores range from 0–100, with higher scores indicating higher quality of life for the global and functional scales. Higher symptom scores indicate greater fatigue.

The Tampa Kinesophobia Scale was used to measure excessive, irrational and debilitating fear of physical movement and activity resulting from a feeling of vulnerability to painful injury or re-injury. Two subscales were used to measure avoidance of activities (7 items) and pathologic somatic focus (4 items).

As measured by two items on the EORTC QLQ–C30, cognitive function improved at 12 weeks, but not at 6 weeks. There were significant improvements for all quality-of-life domains and fatigue for all cancer patients after 12 weeks (p < 0.05).

The authors suggest that exercise may improve cognitive functioning as well as other quality-of-life domains.

• Although subjective cognitive function improved over 12 weeks, this finding was not confirmed by objective cognitive-specific measures.
• A wide range of ages was included in the sample, but no age breakdown was recorded for the two cohorts; ge-related changes in cognitive function may influence the results between the two cohorts.
• The authors were unable to determine whether changes in quality of life were a result of the exercise versus the psychoeducational intervention or the combination of both.
• There was no control group as a comparison. 

To examine the effects of physical therapy (PT) versus physical therapy plus cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) interventions on problem solving, anxiety, and depression in patients with cancer

Consecutive groups of patients referred to rehabilitation centers were randomly assigned to receive either PT or PT and CBT programs for 12 weeks. PT consisted of twice weekly two-hour sessions of aerobic training, muscle-strength training, and group sports and games. CBT sessions were provided in a group format in which participants learned to apply self-management skills in striving for personal goals. Psychologists gathered self-evaluations regarding the extent to which patients adhered to the intervention protocol, and the process was evaluated via case records. Study measures were obtained at baseline, 12 weeks postrehabilitation, and three and nine months postintervention. After week 6, patients started a home-based walking program.

• A total of 147 participants were analyzed, with 132 completing rehabilitation.
• Mean age of participants was 48.8 ± 10.9.
• The sample was 16.3% male and 83.7% female.
• Of the sample, 55.8% had breast cancer, all had completed treatment at least three months prior to inclusion, and the average time since treatment was 1.7 years.
• Nearly 71% were married and living with a spouse, and 86.4% had middle to high levels of education. 
• At baseline, less than one-third had anxiety or depression scores indicating clinically relevant symptoms.

• Multisite
• Setting unspecified
• Dutch rehabilitation centers

• Transition phase after initial treatment
• Late effects and survivorship

Prospective, single-blinded, randomized, two-group trial design

• Social Problem-Solving Inventory–Revised    
• Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale (HADS)

Overall baseline anxiety and depression scores of participants were significantly higher than those in the general Dutch population (p < 0.001). Immediately after the 12-week program, both groups showed small to moderate effect-size reduction in anxiety (0.45–0.55 [p < 0.001]) and depression (0.44–0.59 [p < 0.001]). At three and nine months, average effects, as measured by HADS score, continued to be lower than baseline, with effect sizes ranging from 0.24 to 0.4. Participants in both groups showed comparable changes in problem solving, anxiety, and depression. Subgroup analysis between those with initially higher and lower levels of distress showed no difference in changes in problem solving. Patients with higher distress, in both intervention groups, showed significant reduction in anxiety (p < 0.01) and depression (p < 0.01) at all study time points. At all measurement points, patients with lower distress at baseline showed levels of distress in keeping with those of the general population.

Study findings did not show that the addition of CBT to PT resulted in effects on problem solving, anxiety, or depression that were greater than the effects of PT alone. Findings did not support the hypothesis that the addition of CBT would be of greater benefit for individuals who had higher distress levels initially. Study findings show beneficial effects of PT on anxiety and depression.

• The study had no appropriate control group.
• Subgroup analysis was done according to overall distress levels, then compared to outcomes regarding anxiety and depression. These are different concepts and patient experiences. Subgroup analysis would have been more relevant if researchers had compared actual anxiety and depression levels to each other, respectively. 
• The study provides no information about attendance rates for sessions, the amount of exercise continued after the initial 12-week session, or adherence to the home-based walking intervention.

Findings if this study support other findings regarding beneficial effects of physical activity in a supervised group setting. Findings of this study suggest that the addition of specific CBT interventions may not increase these effects. Analysis of results in those who had high versus low levels of distress demonstrates that those with low distress do not show a benefit.

To explore the effectiveness of standard laxative treatment in the prevention of oxycodone-induced constipation

From July 2013 to October 2013, standard laxative treatment consisting of polyethylene glycol (PEG) with electrolytes was started at the same time as opioid intake on day 1. Bisacodyl was prescribed, and patients took this as needed. Patients prescribed oxycodone at least 20 mg slow-release tables were started on the standard laxative treatment and followed for 28 days.

• N = 21  
• MEDIAN AGE = 65 years
• RANGE = 39-92 years
• MALES: 42%, FEMALES: 58%
• KEY DISEASE CHARACTERISTICS: There were chronic 23 with non-malignant pain and 1 patient with malignant pain.

• SITE: Multi-site    
• SETTING TYPE: Not specified    
• LOCATION: Netherlands

• PHASE OF CARE: Multiple phases of care
• APPLICATIONS: Elder care and palliative care

• Prospective, observational, pilot study

• Bowel Function Index (BFI), measured at the start and end of study
• Bristol stool form scale (BSF), indicates type of stool, numerical pain score, laxative, and a responder analysis using the following criteria: decrease of BFI by 12 points or patient did not develop constipation AND patient did not develop diarrhea AND patient did not discontinue laxative treatment due to adverse events

The dose of PEG and electrolytes varied between 0-3 sachets, and the bisacodyl dose varied from 5 mg-20 mg. Based on responder analysis criteria, 43% of patients (9 of 21) who were prescribed a standard laxative therapy regimen did not respond.

A standard laxative therapy regimen may not be effective in all patients given the type of opioid they may be prescribed and what their bowel function is at the start of opioid therapy.

• Small sample (less than 30)
• Risk of bias (no control group)
• Risk of bias (no blinding)
• Risk of bias (no random assignment)
• Measurement/methods not well described
• Findings not generalizable
• Pilot study
• Observational study

Response to prophylactic PEG plus electrolytes is patients taking oxycodone SR is variable.

To determine the effect of a combination of oxycodone and naloxone prolonged release tablets (OXN PR) on opioid-induced constipation and pain in patients with moderate to severe cancer- or noncancer-related pain

Patients had received OXN PR in prior double-blinded, multicenter, randomized studies. In one previous study (also a pooled analysis of two Phase III studies), patients with noncancer-related pain received 12 weeks of OXN PR or oxycodone prolonged release (Oxy PR) at the dose equivalent of 20–50 mg per day or 60–120 mg per day. After a 7–28-day period, patients were titrated to an effective analgesic dose of Oxy PR. In a previous Phase II study, patients with moderate to severe cancer-related pain were screened for 3–10 days and then switched to OXN PR or Oxy PR for four weeks (20–120 mg per day). In all prior studies, bisacodyl at 10 mg per day could be taken orally as a rescue laxative 72 hours after a previous bowel movement or when the patient experienced discomfort for a maximum of five doses in seven consecutive days. In all previous studies, data were collected at screening, at the start of the intervention period, and at the end of the intervention period. Laxative use was documented throughout the intervention period in all studies.

• N = 75  
• MEDIAN AGE = 62 years (range = 40–80 years)
• MALES: Unknown, FEMALES: Unknown
• OTHER KEY SAMPLE CHARACTERISTICS: 53.3% of patients had cancer-related pain.

• SITE: Multi-site    
• SETTING TYPE: Not specified  
• LOCATION: Netherlands

• PHASE OF CARE: Multiple phases of care
• APPLICATIONS: Elder care 

Pooled analysis

• Bowel Function Index (BFI)
• Brief Pain Inventory Short Form (BPI-SF)
• Documentation of adverse effects 

The high BFI score at the time of screening indicated that both groups of patients experienced constipation and that patients with cancer-related pain experienced more symptoms. OXN PR clinically and statistically improved constipation in patients with chronic cancer- and noncancer-related pain. Laxative use decreased during the intervention period, and more patients fell within the range of normal bowel habits as the intervention progressed. Pain scores did not change during the intervention period although there was a nonsignificant trend of pain improvement in patients with cancer-related pain.

• Small sample (< 100)
• Findings not generalizable
• Other limitations/explanation: The studies that were used differed in length of treatment (4 versus 12 weeks). Demographic information was limited although the authors stated that there was no difference between the groups. Only 40 patients with cancer-related pain were included in the analysis. It appears as though some of the patients with cancer-related pain were receiving end-of-life care, but this is not entirely clear. Limited outcomes were reported for pain.

OXN PR may be a viable pharmacologic intervention to achieve pain control in patients with cancer-related pain while minimizing the symptoms of opioid-induced constipation. OXN PR reduced laxative use and increased the number of patients who reported normal bowel function. OXN PR did not change pain scores.